A clear definition on European Studies in the Chinese context is very crucial to the formulation of the “EU-China European Studies Programme (ESP China)”, as it will, to a large extent, determine the content and activities, direction of financial flows, the final outcome of this project, and eventually its impact upon both EU and China in the long-run. In presenting the reflections below, the consultants try to keep in mind all the relevant questions put forward by EC counterparts in Beijing and Brussels during the project briefing and the following period. Our main points, which try to bring in the Chinese perspective, are roughly summarised in the following sections.

 

It should be pointed out that this paper is not a formal report as requested in the Terms of Reference. Rather, it is conceived as a basis for subsequent discussions of the experts with the EC Delegation in China and stakeholders of the ESP.

 

 

1. European Studies as Area Studies

 

Generally speaking, European Studies belongs to the field of “Area Studies”, which means that (to put it rather simply) you take a certain part of the World as the object of your studies (just as American, Asian, African, and Latin American Studies), and which also means that the primary focus should be on the social sciences, law and modern history of the area you are dealing with, not on its language, literature and other humanities.

 

So, if we follow this typical definition on “Area Studies” in the profession[1] (which is accepted by the European, American and Chinese specialists in the field), European Studies could cover the whole of Europe (broadly defined[2], including the Western Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans and South-eastern Europe, and the part of Turkey and former Soviet Union which lies in Europe), but should confine the subjects to the issues of contemporary Europe, and also to the range of social sciences, mainly the topics involving political sciences, law and economics, and sometimes sociology[3].

 

 

2. European Studies in the Context of the ESP

 

In the context of the present project, European Studies has almost been an equivalent to EU Studies, meaning that the relevant research and teaching in China should revolve around the historical process of

 

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This is a re-printed discussion document prepared in April,2001 for the formulation mission on the EU-China European Studies (Centers) Programme. As a member of the expert team engaged by the EC delegation, the drafter tries to express his opinions on all the relevant questions concerning the definitions of the European studies in China(as requested by the European officials), so as to provide a basis for discussing the academic dimensions of the Programme. For the document, please see: EC Delegation，Formulation Mission Concerning the Promotion of European Studies in China（Letter of Contract N^o F30bis-ASI-ER/H2），Draft Final Report，06 July 2001，Pohl Consulting & Associates, Appendix E.pp1-8 ---a note given by the drafter) 

 

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European Integration, and its core organization, the European Communities/European Union. This orientation has been emphasized many times by the Commission. The Terms of Reference for the ESP formulation mission point out unequivocally that “the [EU-China European Studies] Programme’s aim is

 [...] to strengthen and expand EU studies in China”, and regards “EU Studies” as “one of the priority areas of co-operation”.[4] And the subsequent clarifications given by the Commission during and following the briefing also suggested that “any proposed programme will have as a clear objective the raising of awareness of European Union issues with current and future Chinese leaders”.[5] The equation between the two can be seen likewise in the links of ESP to HEP( the EU-China Higher Education Co-operation Programme.): the former’s aim is clearly specified as “to consolidate the results of” the latter, while in the latter ”European Studies is broadly defined to include inter alia EU-related social sciences”.[6]

 

Generally speaking, the background, necessity and significance for focusing on EU studies (in China) can be well attributed to and justified by the dynamic momentum of the European Integration itself, and the EC/EU’s increasing influence over both Europe and the world today.

 

1) Practically, the vigorous deepening and widening process of the EC/EU since the mid-80s has undoubtedly contributed a great deal to the shaping of contemporary Europe: the launching of the internal market, EMU and Euro, the founding of EU with its three pillars, and the forth enlargement that raises the numbers of the Member States in Western Europe to fifteen, and the on-going process of expanding into Central and Eastern Europe (in the context of the end of the Cold War), with the prospect of developing into a Union of 28 Member States in the first decade of the new century,[7] have all demonstrated the central role that the EC/EU has played in integrating and shaping a new Europe, and in adding to its weight in World Affairs (as the most integrative and powerful regional organisation). This is just the reason why it has attracted more and more attention from the outside world over the last 15 years.[8]

 

2) Academically and intellectually, the unique nature of EU (neither an international organisation in the usual sense, nor a supranational entity or a superstate, but something in-between), caused by (or rooted in) its distinctive model of the Integration process, have posed the greatest challenges to the traditional theories in many fields of social sciences, such as political sciences, economics, and law, etc. Therefore, the vast, intensive academic inputs for constructing the analytical framework to explain and predict the development of the EC/EU will surely make a great contribution to  enriching the theories of many disciplines concerned. It is one of the most important orientations and tendencies in the Western academic circles, especially in the field of political science.

 

3) There is no doubt that the gaining momentum of the EC/EU, particularly what it has achieved in the area of economic integration, have attracted attention of the Chinese Government, and aroused more interest and concerns from the Chinese enterprises, academic circles and the public as a whole. With the ever-growing trade between the two sides and the CCP being carried out at the European level, the launching of Euro, and even your progress made in the CFSP, there does exist a bigger motivation for understanding EC/EU on the Chinese side. However, generally speaking, compared with other fields regarding Europe, such as philosophy, literature, and history (including the histories of major European countries), and even with the fields concerning European economies and politics in a general sense, or regarding individual countries, the research and teaching on EC/EU are much weaker, both in terms of its scope and academic capabilities, especially when we take into account the teaching conditions of many Chinese Universities and colleges (of course, this also has something to do with the fact that the EC/EU has a much shorter history, and its institutions & mechanisms are very complex and unique). So, it goes without saying that a strong push in this regard is particularly necessary in China.

 

2.1 Dimensions of European Studies in China

 

If we could think that EU Studies should be the major concern in this programme, then it must be stressed that these EU studies should be understood comprehensively, covering all the three pillars of the EU in terms of their deepening and widening process, paying attention to the theoretical analysis, policies and practice of the EU, and its impact upon the outside world. For a more disciplinary approach, the studies can be divided into four basic dimensions at least (following the indications given by one of the most authoritative academic periodicals, Journal of Common Market Studies, produced under the auspices of the University Association for Contemporary European Studies). It should be noted however, that considerable overlaps between these four dimensions exist, which will call for interdisciplinary approaches in many instances.

 

History

 

By using the term “history” here we mean the course of “historical development” of the EC/EU itself, including the origins and background of its founding, several important stages of development, basic facts, events and prominent figures in the integration process. This should be one of the priorities stressed by the programme, because:

a) Being a nation with a long history and historical records (four or five thousand years), the Chinese attach great importance to historical science. A systematic knowledge of the development of the subject you are dealing with has always been regarded as the basis for pursuing further studies successfully (in Chinese terms it is called “building up academic infrastructure”.

b) The integration process itself is a dynamic, ever-changing one. Without following it closely and trying to grasp its latest developments, it would be rather difficult to obtain an insight into the forefront issues.

 

c) As said above, there is still a long way to go in enhancing the scope and academic capabilities of presenting a course on EC/EU’s history among Chinese Universities.

 

Political Science

 

Centering around the very unique nature of EC/EU, the following aspects should be addressed (some overlaps and very close links exist among them):

 

a) The characteristics of EC/EU’s political structure, system and politics, the issue of polity, regime and European governance;

 

b) The institutional mechanism of the EC/EU, i.e. the European Commission, the Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament, the European Council, their respective powers and responsibilities, the way in which they act upon each other in the decision-making process; the institutional reform in the context of Eastward enlargement;

 

c) Parties and interest groups’ activities, European elections, etc.

 

d) The Common Foreign and Security Policy (incl. the impact on the outside world, and particularly Sino-EU relations), and the co-operation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs, their motivation, decision-making procedures, difficulties and the latest progress;

 

e) EU citizenship;

 

f) Last but not least, theoretical studies. All the theories trying to explain and analyse the model of Integration, such as functionalist and neo-functionalist approach, federalism and confederalism, intergovernmentalism, spill-over and club theories (just to mention a few of the most well-known ones), could be referred to and examined here.

 

Economics

 

As the key area and the foundation of EU, thus the focus of the outside world’s attention, it is really fundamental to understand European integration from an economic perspective, including the momentum, mechanism, process, obstacles, prospects, and external influences. Therefore, all the negative and positive, dynamic and static aspects concerned should be emphasized, among which the most essential ones are:

 

a) The economic basis of the EC. This means market integration, basically including the Customs Union, and the Common Market (Single Market or Internal Market, the goal of which is to achieve four freedoms among the Member States). The effects of trade creation and trade diversion, the benefits and costs analysis are involved.

 

b) EC’s economic policies, which are formulated and implemented for different purposes. A good range of policies could be listed: Common agricultural policy, competition policy, structural policy, common commercial policy, industrial policy, social policy, the policies promoting the new economies (Research and Development policy, and Training and Education policy, the construction of European Network), and the EC Budget,

c) the Economic and Monetary Union, and the launching of Euro. This has brought the economic integration to a higher level, with the establishment of an independent European Central Bank (ECB), a single currency launched successfully, a single monetary policy being carried out, and an intensifying co-ordination of the Member States’ budgetary policies. Mundell’s Optimum Currency Area theory which foresees the regional monetary integration should be elaborated as a theoretical framework.[9] What is more important, all the practical developments, such as the Monetary Strategies pursued by the ECB, the transmission channels of the SMP, the way of addressing asymmetric shocks, etc., should be observed closely and analysed.

 

d) The economics of the EU’s eastward expansion.

 

EC/EU Law

 

Created by law and based on law, a new legal order emerged from the building of EC/EU, whose role is extremely significant. What should be focused on is the basic characters of this legal order, which comes from: the legal sources of the law (the primary and secondary legislation); the Community range of tools (regulations, directives, decisions, opinions and recommendations); the legislative process; the relationship between Community law and national law (autonomy of the community legal order, primacy and direct applicability of Community law, interaction and conflict between the two); the tasks, responsibilities and roles of the European Court of Justice, the roles of case law in the integration process.

 

2.2 Studies of Member and Candidate Countries

 

The studies of both the EU Member States and its candidate countries should also be covered in this Programme, for the following reasons:

 

1) The sovereign states are still the basic units of the EC/EU, and have the last say in transferring some of their powers to the EU, while the latter, being “an autonomous entity” and termed legally as “supranational organisation” nowadays, “has neither the comprehensive jurisdiction enjoyed by sovereign states nor the powers to establish new areas of responsibility”.[10] In this sense the existence of the EC/EU only changes the way of interaction between the Organisation and the Nation States. Therefore the studies on EU could not go without paying due attention to its members. In effect, one of the strongest arguments for including the study of member states in EU studies is that any important decision of and within the EU is a compromise of national interests; therefore, the EU cannot be understood without taking into account its member states.

 

However, in order to make a distinction from country studies in a general sense, the research and teaching on the member states should be done within the framework of EU studies, which means that the issues to be addressed are related to the process of European Integration in one way or another.

 

2) As is well-known, the on-going enlargement process involving the 10 Central and Eastern applicants has already made a deep impact upon the EU. Actually, the formulation of the expanding strategy are just based upon the results of careful studies involving the conditions of the candidates, which have brought about big reforms of the EU’s CAP, the structural policies, and financial systems at the Berlin European Council, and also the Institutional reform reflected in the Nice Treaty. This is a good example to show the significance of studying candidates in the context of EU studies.

 

 

3. Further Remarks

 

Theoretical and more practical research and teaching should be promoted in China simultaneously. On both sides in-depth studies of high-quality are very much needed, and a good result from one side could help the other to step forward, since ”the best work on both sides is built on deductive theory and careful empirical investigations. A solution will make demands on both sides”[11] (a typical Chinese expression is “combining theories with practice”).

 

The academic studies and policy advice could be linked to each other in China, either through reports on policy advice presented by some research institutes (based on their academic studies) to the Chinese Government, or through the publications of various European Studies Centres, which could influence the policy-makers in one way or another.

 

Finally, it should be pointed out that,

a) if you want to pursue EU studies against a wider and deeper background, then the cultural and social issues must be brought into your vision;

b) the interdisciplinary approaches are one of the orientations in this field;

c) due to the huge differences and gaps that exist between East and West in various aspects (such as cultures, histories, ideologies, ways of thinking, academic theories and approaches, political, economic and social systems, positions and interests) it takes time for the Chinese people to understand the EU deeply, or vice versa. But any efforts to build a bridge between the two sides to further such understanding will bear fruits in the long run. Here we shouldn’t be too short-sighted.

 

                                               

 

Literature

 

Hall, Peter A. 1996: The State of European Studies, New York: Council for European Studies and Social Science Research Council.

 

Hall, Peter A./Tarrow, Sidney 1998: Globalization and Area Studies: When is Too Broad Too Narrow?, in: The Chronicle of Higher Education, 23 January 1998.

 

Makins, Christopher J. 1998: The Study of Europe in the United States. A Report to the German Marshall Fund and the Delegation of the European Commission to the United States, Washington, DC: German Marshall Fund and the Delegation of the European Commission to the United States.

 

Tarrow, Sidney 1994: Rebirth or Stagnation? European Studies after 1989, New York: Social Science Research Council.